UGC NET Syllabus for Environmental Science
UGC-NET-Syllabus
Subject: Environmental Science
Note:
There will be two question papers, Paper-II and paper-III(Part A & Part B) paper –II will be cover 50 objective type question(Multiple type, matching type ,true/false, Assertion Reasoning type) carrying 100 marks Paper-III will have two parts Part-A and Part-B
Paper-III will have 10 short essay type question (300 words) carrying 16 marks ach. In it there will be one question with internal choice from each unit (i.e 10 question form 10 units Total marks will be 160) Paper-IIIB will be compulsory and there will be one question form each of the elective. The candidate will attempt only one question (One elective only in 800 words) carrying 40 marks. Total marks of paper-III will be 200
Paper-II and Paper-III (Part A & B)
Unit-I
Definition , principles and scope of environmental science
Earth, Man and environment, ecosystem, pathways in ecosystem
Physic-Chemical and Biological factors in the environment
geographical classification and Zones
Structure ad composition of atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere, Mass and energy transfer across the various interface material balance , first and second law of thermodynamics, Heat transfer process, Scale of Metrology, Pressure, temperature, precipitation, Humidity, radiation and wind, Atmosphere stability, inversions and mixing height, windrose
Natural resources, conservation and sustainable development
Unit-II
Fundamental of Environmental chemistry: Stochiometry, Gibbs’ energy, chemical Potential, chemical equilibrium acid base reactions, Solubility product, solubility of gases in water, the carbonate system, Unsaturated and saturated hydrocarbons, radio nuclides
Chemical compositions of Air: Classification of elements, chemical speciation, Particles, Ions and radicals in atmosphere, chemical processes for formation of inorganic and organic particulate matter, thermo chemical and photochemical reaction in atmosphere Oxygen and Ozone chemistry, chemistry of air pollutants , photochemical smog
Water Chemistry: Chemistry of water, Concept of DO, BOD, COD, Sedimentation coagulation, filtration , redox potential
Soil Chemistry: Inorganic and organic components of soil, Nitrogen pathways and NPK in soils
Toxic Chemicals in the environment-Air, Water: Pesticides in water, Biochemical aspects of Arsenic, Cadmium, Led Mercury, Carbon monoxide, Ozone and PAN pesticides, insecticides, MIC, carcinogens in the air
principles of Analytical method: Titrimetry, Gravimetry, Colourimetry, Spectrophotometer, chromography, gas Chromatography, Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry, GLC, HPLC, Electrophoresis, X-Rays fluorescence, X-ray diffraction , Flame photometry
Unit-III
Definition , Principles and scope of ecology, Human ecology and Human settlement, evolution, origin of life and speciation
ecosystem: Structure and functions, Abiotic and biotic components, energy flows, food chains, Food, web, Ecological pyramids, types and diversity
Ecological succession, population, community ecology ad Parasitism, Preypredator relationships
Common Flora and fauna in India
Aquatic: Phytoplankton, Zooplankton and Macrophytes
terrestrial: forest
Endangere and Threatened Species
Biodiversity and it’s conservation: definition, Hotspots of biodiversity, Strategies for biodiversity conservation, National and Sanctuaries, gene pool
Micro flora of Atmosphere: Air Sampling techniques, Identification of aeroallergens, Air-borne disease and allergies
Environmental Biotechnology : fermentation Technology, sericulture technology, Biofertilizer technology
Unit-IV
environmental geosciences: Fundamental Concepts
the earth system and Biosphere: Conservation of matter in various geosphere-lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere, energy budget of the earth, earth’s environment, and seasons. ecosystems flow of energy and matter, coexistent in communities-Food webs, Earth’s major ecosystems-terrestrial and aquatic, General relationship between landscape, biomes and climate, Climate of India, Indian Monsoon, nino, Droughts, tropical cyclones and western Disturbances
Earth Process and Geological hazards ” Earth’s process, Concept of residences and rate of natural cycles, Catastrophic geological hazard, Study of floods, landslide, earthquakes, volcanism and avalanche, prediction and perception of the hazards and adjustment to hazardous activities
Mineral Resources ad environment: Global Water Balance, Ice sheets and fluctuating of sea levels, Origin and composition of seawater, hydrological cycle, factor influencing the surface water, Types of Water, Resources of Ocean, Oceans pollution by toxic wastes, Human use of surface water and ground water, Ground water pollution
Land use Planning: The plan use plan, Soil Surveys in relation to land use planning, Methods of site selection and evaluation
environmental; geochemistry : Concept t of major , trace and REE, Classification pf the trace elements, Mobility of trace elements, geochemical cycles, Biogeological factors in environmental health, Human use, Trace elements, ad health, possible effects of some unbalance elements. Diseases induces by human use of land
Principles of remote sensing and it’s application of environmental science
application of GIS in environmental Management
Unit-V
Sun as source of energy, Solar radiation and it’s spectral characteristics, Fossils fuels-classification, compositions, Physic-chemical chrematistics and energy content of coal, Petroleum and natural gas, Principles of generation of hydroelectric power, tidal, Ocean thermal energy conversion, Wind, Geothermal energy, Solar collector, Photovoltaic, solar pond, nuclear energy-Fission and fusion, magneto hydrodynamic power, Bioenergy-energy from biomass and biogas, Anaerobic digestion, energy use pattern in different parts of the World
Environmental implication of energy uses, CO2 emissions, global warming , air and thermal palliation , radioactive waste and radioactivity form nuclear reactors, Impacts of large scale exploitation of Solar , Wind , Hydro and Ocean energy
Unit-VI
AIR: Natural and anthropogenic source of pollution, Primary and Secondary pollutants , Transport and diffusion of pollutants, gas laws governing the behavior of pollutants in the atmosphere, Methods of monitoring and control of air pollution SO2, NOx, CO, SPM, effects of pollutant on human beings, plants animals, material and on climate, Acid rain, Air Quality standards
Water: types, Sources and consequences of water pollution, Physio-chemical and Bacteriological sampling and analysis of water quality, Standards, Sewage waste water treatment and recycling .Water quality standards
Soil: Physio-chemical and Bacteriological sampling as analysis of soil quality, Soil pollution control, Industrial waste effluents, and heavy metals Their interaction with soil components, Soil microorganism and their functions, Degradation of different insecticides, fungicides and weedcides in soil, Different kind of Synthetic fertilizer (NP& K) and their interaction with different component of soil
Noise: Sources of noise pollution Measurements of noise and indices, effect of metrological parameters on noise propagation, Noise exposure levels and Standards. Noise control and battement measures. Impact of noise on human health
Marine: Sources of Marine pollution and control, Criteria employed for disposal of pollutants in marine sytem-cosat; management
Radioactive and thermal Pollution
Unit-VII
Introduction to environmental impact analysis
environmental impact assessment and environmental Management Plan
EIA guidelines 1994. Noticification of Government of India
Impact Assessment Methodologies
generalized approach to impact analysis
Procedure for reviewing environmental impact analysis and statement
Guidelines for Environmental Audit
Introduction to environmental Planning
Base line information and prediction( land, water, atmosphere, energy etc)
restoration and rehabitation technologies
Land use policy for India
Urban planning for India
Rural planning and Land use pattern
Concept and strategies of sustainable development
Cost-Benefit analysis
Environmental priorities in India and Sustainable development
Unit-VIII
Sources and generation of solid waste, their characteristics, chemical composition and classification, Different method of disposal and management of solid waste ( Hospital Waste and Hazardous waste) recycling of waste material. Waste minimization technologies
Hazardous Waste Management and Handling Rule, 1989, resource Management, Disasters Management and Risk analysis
Environment protection-issues and problems, International and national efforts for environment Protection. Provision of constitution of India regarding Environment (Article 48A and 58A)
Environmental Policy resolution, Legislation , Public Policy Strategies in pollution control, Wildlife Protection Act amended 1991, Forest conservation act, 1980 , Indian Forest Act (Revised) 1982, Air( Prevention and control of Pollution) Act, 1981 as amended by Amendment Act 1987 and rule 1982, Motor vehicle Act, 19888, the water ( Prevention and control Pollution) Act, 1974 as amended up to 1988 and rules 1975, The environmental ( Protection ) Act, 1986 and Rules 1986
Scheme of labeling of environment friendly product (Eco mark), Public liability Insurance Act, 1991 and Rules 1991
Unit-IX
Basic elements and tool of Statistical analysis, Probability, assembling, measurement and distribution of attributes, Distribution-Normal t and x, Poisson and Binomial Arithmetic, geometric and Harmonic means, Matrices, Simultaneous linear equation tests of hypothesis and significance
Introduction to environmental system analysis, Approaches to development of model, Liner simple and multiple regression model, validation and forecasting, Model of population growth and interaction, Lotka-Voterra model, Leslie’s matrix model, point source stream pollution model, box model Gaussian plume model
Unit-X
Environmental education and Awareness
Environmental ethics Global imperatives
Global environmental problems-Ozone depletion, global warming and climatic change
current environmental issues in India
Context: Narmada Dam, Tehri Dam, Almethi Dam, Soil errosion, Formation and reclamation of Usra, Alkaline and Saline Soil
Waste lands and their reclamation
Desertification and it’s control
Vehicular pollution and urban air quality
Depletion of Natural Resources
Biodiversity conservation and Agenda-21
Waste disposal, recycling and power generation, Fly ash utilization
water Crises-conservation of water
Environmental Hazards
Eutrophication and restoration of Indian lakes
Rain water harvesting
Wet lands conservation
Epidemiological issues (i.e Goitre, Fluorosis, Arsenic)
20100524
Governer General of india
Governor Generals of India
1.Lord William Bentinck (1828 – 1835):
Carried out the social reforms like Prohibition of Sati (1829) and elimination of thugs (1830).
Made English the Medium of higher education in the country (After the recommendations of Macaulay).
Suppressed female infanticide and child sacrifice.
Charter Act of 1833 was passed; made him the first Governor General of India. Before him, the designation was Governor General of Bengal.
2.Sir Charles Metcalfe (1835 – 1836): Abolished all restrictions on vernacular press (called Liberator of the Press).
3.Lord Auckland (1836 – 1842): The most important event of his reign was the First Afghan War, which proved to be a disaster for the English.
4.Lord Ellenborough (1842 – 1844)
5.Lord Hardinge I (1844 – 1848)
6.Lord Dalhousie (1848 – 1856):
Opened the first Indian Railway in 1853 (from Bombay to Thane).
Laid out the telegraph lines in 1853 (First was from Calcutta to Agra).
Introduced the Doctrine of Lapse and captured Satara (1848), Jaipur and Sambhalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853) and Nagpur (1854).
Established the postal system on the modern lines through the length and breadth of the country, which made communication easier.
Started the Public Works Department. Many bridges were constructed and the work on Grand Trunk Road was started. The harbors of Karachi, Bombay and Calcutta were also developed.
Made Shimla the summer capital.
Started Engineering College at Roorkee.
Encouraged science, forestry, commerce, mineralogy and industry.
In 1854, "Wood's Dispatch' was passed, which provided for the properly articulated system of education from the primary school to the university.
Due to Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar's efforts, remarriage of widows was legalized by Widow Remarriage Act, 1856).
Newspaper Journals
Newspaper/JournalFounder/Editor
Bengal Gazette(1780) (India's first newspaper) J.K.Hikki
Kesari B.G.Tilak
Maharatta B.G.Tilak
Sudharak G.K.Gokhale
Amrita Bazar Patrika Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh
Vande Mataram Aurobindo Ghosh
Native Opinion V.N.Mandalik
Kavivachan Sudha Bhartendu Harishchandra
Rast Goftar (First newspaper in Gujarati Dadabhai Naoroji
New India (Weekly) Bipin Chandra Pal
Statesman Robert Knight
HinduVir Raghavacharya and G.S.Aiyar
Sandhya B.B.Upadhyaya
Vichar LahiriKrishnashastri Chiplunkar
Hindu PatriotGirish Chandra Ghosh (later Harish Chandra Mukherji)
Som PrakashIshwar Chandra Vidyasagar
YugantarBhupendranath Datta and Barinder Kumar Ghosh
Bombay ChronicleFiroze Shah Mehta
HindustanM.M.Malviya
MooknayakB.R.Ambedkar
ComradeMohammed Ali
Tahzib-ul-AkhlaqSir Syyed Ahmed Khan
Al-HilalAbdul Kalam Azad
Al-BalaghAbdul Kalam Azad
IndependentMotilal Nehru
PunjabiLala Lajpat Rai
New India (Daily)Annie Besant
CommonwealAnnie Besant
PratapGanesh Shankar Vidyarthi
Essays in Indian EconomicsM.G.Ranade
Samvad Kaumudi (Bengali)Ram Mohan Roy
Mirat-ul-AkhbarRam Mohan Roy (first Persian newspaper)
Indian MirrorDevendra Nath Tagore
Nav JeevanM.K.Gandhi
Young IndiaM.K.Gandhi
HarijanM.K.Gandhi
Prabudha BharatSwami Vivekananda
UdbodhanaSwami Vivekananda
Indian SocialistShyamji Krishna Verma
Talwar (in Berlin)Birendra Nath Chattopadhyaya
Free Hindustan (in Vancouver)Tarak Nath Das
Hindustan TimesK.M.Pannikar
KrantiMirajkar, Joglekar, Ghate
Viceroys Of India
Lord Canning (1856 – 1862):
The last Governor General and the first Viceroy.
Mutiny took place in his time.
On Nov, 1858, the rule passed on to the crown.
Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse.
The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were established in 1857.
Indian Councils Act was passed in 1861.
Lord Elgin (1862 – 1863)
Lord Lawrence (1864 – 1869):
Telegraphic communication was opened with Europe.
High Courts were established at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1865.
Expanded canal works and railways.
Created the Indian Forest department.
Lord Mayo (1869 – 1872):
Started the process of financial decentralization in India.
Established the Rajkot college at Kathiarwar and Mayo College at Ajmer for the Indian princes.
For the first time in Indian history, a census was held in 1871.
Organised the Statistical Survey of India.
Was the only Viceroy to be murdered in office by a Pathan convict in the Andamans in 1872.
Lord Northbrook (1872 – 1876):
Lord Lytton (1876 – 1880):
Known as the Viceroy to reverse characters.
Organised the Grand 'Delhi Durbar' in 1877 to decorate Queen Victoria with the title of 'Kaiser – I – Hind'.
Arms Act(1878) made it mandatory for Indians to acquire license for arms.
Passed the infamous Vernacular Press Act (1878).
Lord Ripon (1880 – 1884):
Liberal person, who sympathized with Indians.
Repeated the Vernacular Press Act (1882)
Passed the local self – government Act (1882)
Took steps to improve primary & secondary education (on William Hunter Commission's recommendations).
The I Factory Act, 1881, aimed at prohibiting child labour.
Passed the libert Bill (1883) which enabled Indian district magistrates to try European criminals. But this was withdrawn later.
Lord Dufferin (1884 – 1888):
Indian National Congress was formed during his tenure.
Lord Lansdowne (1888 – 1894):
II Factory Act (1891) granted a weekly holiday and stipulated working hours for women and children, although it failed to address concerns such as work hours for men.
Categorization of Civil Services into Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate.
Indian Council Act of 1892 was passed.
Appointment of Durand Commission to define the line between British India and Afghanistan.
Lord Elgin II (1894 – 1899):
Great famine of 1896 – 1897. Lyall Commission was appointed.
Lord Curzon (1899 – 1905):
Passed the Indian Universities Act (1904) in which official control over the Universities was increased.
Partitioned Bengal (October 16, 1905) into two provinces 1, Bengal (proper), 2.East Bengal & Assam.
Appointed a Police Commission under Sir Andrew Frazer to enquire into the police administration of every province.
The risings of the frontier tribes in 1897 – 98 led him to create the North Western Frontier Province(NWFP).
Passed the Ancient Monuments Protection Act (1904), to restore India's cultural heritage. Thus the Archaeological Survey of India was established.
Passed the Indian Coinage and Paper Currency Act (1899) and put India on a gold standard.
Extended railways to a great extent.
Lord Minto (1905 – 1910):
There was great political unrest in India. Various acts were passed to curb the revolutionary activities. Extremists like Lala Laipat Rai and Ajit Singh (in May, 1907) and Bal Gangadhar Tilak (in July, 1908) were sent to Mandalay jail in Burma.
The Indian Council Act of 1909 or the Morley – Minto Reforms was passed.
Lord Hardinge (1910 – 1916):
Held a durbar in dec, 1911 to celebrate the coronation of King George V.
Partition of Bengal was cancelled (1911), capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi (1911).
A bomb was thrown at him; but he escaped unhurt (Dec 23, 1912).
Gandhiji came back to India from S.Africa (1915).
Annie Besant announced the Home Rule Movement.
Lord Chelmsford (1916 – 1921):
August Declaration of 1917, whereby control over the Indian government would be gradually transferred to the Indian people.
The government of India Act in 1919 (Montague – Chelmsford reforms) was passed.
Rowlatt Act of 1919; Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919).
Non – Cooperation Movement.
An Indian Sir S.P.Sinha was appointed the Governor of Bengal.
A Women's university was founded at Poona in 1916.
Saddler Commission was appointed in 1917 to envisage new educational policy.
Lord Reading (1921 – 1926):
Rowlatt act was repeated along with the Press act of 1910.
Suppressed non-cooperation movement.
Prince of Wales visited India in Nov.1921.
Moplah rebellion (1921) took place in Kerala.
Ahmedabad session of 1921.
Formation of Swaraj Party.
Vishwabharati University started functioning in 1922.
Communist part was founded in 1921 by M.N.Roy.
Kakory Train Robbery on Aug 9, 1925.
Communal riots of 1923 – 25 in Multan, Amritsar, Delhi, etc.
Swami Shraddhanand, a great nationalist and a leader of the Arya Samajists, was murdered in communal orgy.
Lord Irwin (1926 – 1931):
Simon Commission visited India in 1928.
Congress passed the Indian Resolution in 1929.
Dandi March (Mar 12, 1930).
Civil Disobedience Movement (1930).
First Round Table Conference held in England in 1930.
Gandhi – Irwin Pact (Mar 5, 1931) was signed and Civil Disobediance Movement was withdrawn.
Martydorm of Jatin Das after 64 days hunger strike (1929).
Lord Willington (1931 – 1936):
Second Round Table conference in London in 1931.
On his return Gandhiji was again arrested and Civil Disobedience Movement was resumed in Jan 1932.
Communal Awards (Aug 16, 1932) assigned seats to different religious communities. Gandhiji went on a epic fast in protest against this division.
Third Round Table conference in 1932.
Poona Pact was signed.
Government of India Act (1935) was passed.
Lord Linlithgow (1936 – 1944):
Govt. of India Act enforced in the provinces. Congress ministries formed in 8 out of 11 provinces. They remained in power for about 2 years till Oct 1939, when they gave up offices on the issue of India having been dragged into the II World War. The Muslim League observed the days as 'Deliverance Say' (22 December)
Churchill became the British PM in May, 1940. He declared that the Atlantic Charter (issued jointly by the UK and US, stating to give sovereign rights to those who have been forcibly deprived of them) does not apply to India.
Outbreak of World War II in 1939.
Cripps Mission in 1942.
Quit India Movement (August 8, 1942).
Lord Wavell (1944 – 1947):
Arranged the Shimla Conference on June 25, 1945 with Indian National Congress and Muslim League; failed.
Cabinet Mission Plan (May 16, 1946).
Elections to the constituent assembly were held and an Interim Govt. was appointed under Nehru.
First meeting of the constituent assembly was held on Dec. 9, 1946.
Lord Mountbatten (Mar.1947 – Aug.1947):
Last Viceroy of British India and the first Governor General of free India.
Partition of India decided by the June 3 Plan.
Indian Independence Act passed by the British parliament on July 4, 1947, by which India became independent on August 15, 1947.
Retried in June 1948 and was succeeded by C.Rajagopalachari (the first and the last Indian Governor General of free
Important National Activities
The Indian National Congress:
Formed in 1885 by A.O.Hume, an Englishman and a retired civil servant.
First session in Bombay under W.C.Banerjee in 1885 (72 delegates attended it).
In the first two decades (1885 – 1905), quite moderate in its approach and confided in British justice and generosity.
But the repressive measures of the British gave rise to extremists within Congress like Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal, Bal, Pal).
Partition of Bengal:
By Lord Curzon on Oct 16, 1905, through a royal Proclamation, reducing the old province of Bengal in size by creating East Bengal and Assam out of rest of Bengal.
The objective was to set up a communal gulf between Hindus and Muslims.
A mighty upsurge swept the country against the partition. National movement found real expression in the movement against the partition of Bengal in 1905.
Swadeshi Movement (1905):
Lal, Bal, Pal, and Aurobindo Ghosh played the important role.
INC took the Swadeshi call first at the Banaras Session, 1905 presided over by G.K.Gokhale.
Bonfires of foreign goods were conducted at various places.
Formation of Muslim League (1906):
Setup in 1906 under the leadership of Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk.
It was a loyalist, communal and conservative political organization which supported the partition of Bengal, opposed the Swadeshi movement, demanded special safeguards to its community and a separate electorate for Muslims.
Demand for Swaraj:
In Dec 1906 at Calcutta, the INC under Dadabhai Naoroji adopted 'Swaraj' (Self-govt) as the goal of Indian people.
Surat Session of Indian National Congress (1907):
The INC split into two groups – The extremists and The moderates, at the Surat session in 1907. Extremists were led by Bal, Pal, Lal while the moderates by G.K.Gokhale.
Indian Councils Act or Minto Morley Reforms (1909):
Besides other constitutional measures, it envisaged a separate electorate for Muslims.
Aimed at dividing the nationalist ranks and at rallying the Moderates and the Muslims to the Government's side.
Ghadar Party (1913):
Formed by Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das and Sohan Singh Bhakna.
HQ was at San Francisco.
Home Rule Movement (1916):
Started by B.G.Tilak(April, 1916) at Poona and Annie Besant and S.Subramania Iyer at Adyar, near Madras (Sept, 1916).
Objective: Self – government for India in the British Empire.
Tilak linked up the question of Swaraj with the demand for the formation of Linguistic States and education in vernacular language. He gave the slogan: Swaraj is my birth right and I will have it.
Lucknow Pact (1916):
Happened following a war between Britain and Turkey leading to anti-British feelings among Muslims.
Both INC and Muslim League concluded this (Congress accepted the separate electorates and both jointly demanded for a representative government and dominion status for the country).
August Declaration (1917):
After the Lucknow Pact, a British policy was announced which aimed at "increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration for progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British empire". This came to be called the August Declaration.
Rowlatt Act (March 18, 1919):
This gave unbridled powers to the govt. to arrest and imprison suspects without trial for two years maximum. This law enabled the Government to suspend the right of Habeas Corpus, which had been the foundation of civil liberties in Britain.
Caused a wave of anger in all sections. It was the first country-wide agitation by Gandhiji and marked the foundation of the Non Cooperation Movement.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919):
People were agitated over the arrest of Dr. Kitchlu and Dr. Satyapal on April 10, 1919.
General O' Dyer fires at people who assembled in the Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar.
As a result hundreds of men, women and children were killed and thousands injured.
Rabindranath Tagore returned his Knighthood in protest. Sir Shankaran Nair resigned from Viceroy's Executive Council after this.
Hunter Commission was appointed to enquire into it.
On March 13, 1940, Sardar Udham Singh killed O'Dyer when the later was addressing a meeting in Caxton Hall, London.
Khilafat Movement (1920):
Muslims were agitated by the treatment done with Turkey by the British in the treaty that followed the First World War.
Two brothers, Mohd.Ali and Shaukat Ali started this movement.
Non-cooperation Movement (1920):
It was the first mass-based political movement under Gandhiji.
Congress passed the resolution in its Calcutta session in Sept 1920.
Chauri –Chaura Incident (1922):
A mob of people at Chauri – Chaura (near Gorakhpur) clashed with police and burnt 22 policemen on February 5, 1922.
This compelled Gandhiji to withdraw the Non Cooperation movement on Feb.12, 1922.
Simon Commission (1927):
Constituted under John Simon, to review the political situation in India and to introduce further reforms and extension of parliamentary democracy.
Indian leaders opposed the commission, as there were no Indians in it.
The Government used brutal repression and police attacks to break the popular opposition. At Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was severely beaten in a lathi-charge. He succumbed to his injuries on Oct.30, 1928.
Lahore Session (1929):
On Dec.19, 1929 under the President ship of J.L.Nehru, the INC, at its Lahore Session, declared Poorna Swaraj (Complete independence) as its ultimate goal.
On Dec.31, 1929, the newly adopted tri-colour flag was unfurled and an.26, 1930 was fixed as the First Independence Day, was to be celebrated every year.
Revolutionary Activities:
The first political murder of a European was committed in 1897 at Poona by the Chapekar brothers, Damodar and Balkishan. Their target was Mr.Rand, President of the Plague Commission, but Lt.Ayerst was accidentally shot.
In 1907, Madam Bhikaiji Cama, a Parsi revolutionary unfurled the flag of India at Stuttgart Congress (of Second international).
In 1908, Khudiram Bose and Prafulla chaki threw a bomb on the carriage of kingford, the unpopular judge of Muzaffapur. Khudiram, Kanhaiyalal Dutt and Satyendranath Bose were hanged. (Alipur Case).
In 1909, M L Dhingra shot dead Col.William Curzon Whyllie, the political advisor of "India Office" in London.
In 1912, Rasbihari Bose and Sachindra Nath Sanyal threw a bomb and Lord Hardinge at Delhi. (Delhi Conspiracy Case).
In Oct, 1924, a meeting of revolutionaries from all parts of India was called at Kanpur. They setup Hindustan Socialist Republic Association/Army (HSRA).
They carried out a dacoity on the Kakori bound train on the Saharanpur-Lucknow railway line on Aug. 9, 1925.
Bhagat Singh, with his colleagues, shot dead Saunders (Asst. S.P. of Lahore, who ordered lathi charge on Lala Lajpat Rai) on Dec.17, 1928.
Then Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb in the Central Assembly on Apr 8, 1929. Thus, he, Rajguru and Sukhdev were hanged on March. 23,1931 at Lahore Jall (Lahore Conspiracy Case) and their bodies cremated at Hussainiwala near Ferozepur.
In 1929 only Jatin Das died in Lahore jail after 63 days fast to protest against horrible conditions in jail.
Surya Sen, a revolutionary of Bengal, formed the Indian Republic Army in Bengal. In 1930, he masterminded the raid on Chittagong armoury. He was hanged in 1933.
In 1931, Chandrashekhar Azad shot himself at Alfred Park in Allahabad.
Dandi March (1930):
Also called the Salt Satyagraha.
Along with 78 followers, Gandhiji started his march from Sabarmati Ashram on March 12, 1930 for the small village Dandhi to break the salt law.
He reached the seashore on Apr.6, 1930.
He picked a handful of salt and inaugurated the Civil Disobedience Movement.
First Round Table conference (1930):
It was the first conference arranged between the British and Indians as equals. It was held on Nov.12, 1930 in London to discuss Simon commission.
Boycotted by INC, Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, Liberals and some others were there.
Gandhi Irwin Pact (1931):
Moderate Statesman, Sapru, Jaikar and Srinivas Shastri initiated efforts to break the ice between Gandhiji and the government.
The two (government represented by Irwin and INC by Gandhiji) signed a pact on March 5, 1931.
In this the INC called off the civil disobedience movement and agreed to join the second round table conference.
The government on its part released the political prisoners and conceded the right to make salt for consumption for villages along the coast.
Second Round Table Conference (1931):
Gandhiji represented the INC and went to London to meet British P.M. Ramsay Macdonald.
However, the session was soon deadlocked on the minorities issue and this time separate electorates was demanded not only by Muslims but also by Depressed Classes, Indian Christians and Anglo – Indians.
The Communal Award (Aug 16,1932):
Announced by Ramsay McDonald. It showed divide and rule policy of the British.
Envisaged representation of Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo Indians, women and even Backward classes.
Gandhiji, who was in Yeravada jail at that time, started a fast unto death against it.
Poona Pact (September 25, 1932):
After the announcement of communal award and subsequent fast of Gandhiji, mass meeting took place almost everywhere.
Political leaders like Madan Mohan Malviya, B.R.Ambedkar and M.C.Rajah became active.
Eventually Poona pact was reached and Gandhiji broke his fact on the sixth day (Sept 25, 1932).
In this, the idea of separate electorate for the depressed classes was abandoned, but seats reserved to them in the provincial legislature were increased.
Third Round Table Conference (1932):
Proved fruitless as most of the national leaders were in prison. The discussions led to the passing of the Government of India Act, 1935.
Demand For Pakistan:
In 1930, Iqbal suggested that the Frontier Province, Baluchistan, Sindh and Kashmir be made the Muslim State within the federation.
Chaudhary Rehmat Ali gave the term Pakistan in 1923.
Mohd. Ali Jinnah of Bombay gave it practicality.
Muslim League first passed the proposal of separate Pakistan in its Lahore session in 1940.
The Cripps Mission – 1942:
In Dec. 1941, Japan entered the World War – II and advanced towards Indian borders. By March 7, 1942, Rangoon fell and Japan occupied the entire S E Asia.
The British govt. with a view to getting co-operation from Indians sent Sir Stafford Cripps, leader of the House of Commons to settle terms with the Indian leaders.
He offered a draft which proposed dominion status to be granted after the war.
Rejected by the Congress as it didn't want to rely upon future promises.
Gandhiji termed it as a post dated cheque in a crashing bank.
The Revolt of 1942 & The Quit India Movement:
Called the Vardha Proposal and Leaderless Revolt.
The resolution was passed on Aug.8, 1942, at Bombay. Gandhiji gave the slogan 'Do or Die'.
On Aug 9, the Congress was banned and its important leaders were arrested.
The arrests provoked indignation among the masses and, there being no program of action, the movement became spontaneous and violent. Violence spread throughout the country.
The movement was however crushed.
The Indian National Army:
Founded by Rasbehari Bose with Captain Mohan Singh.
S.C.Bose secretly escaped from India in Jain 1941, and reached Berlin. In July 1943, he joined the INA at Singapore. There, Rasbehari Bose handed over the leadership to him.
The soldiers were mostly raised from Indian soldiers of the British army who had been taken prisoners by the Japanese after they conquered S.E.Asia.
Two INA head quarters were Rangoon and Singapore (formed in Singapore).
INA had three fighting brigades named after Gandhiji, Azad and Nehru. Rani Jhansi Brigade was an exclusive women force.
The Cabinet Mission Plan (1946):
The struggle for freedom entered a decisive phase in the year 1945-46. The new Labour Party PM.Lord Attlee, made a declaration on March 15, 1946, that British Cabinet Mission (comprising of Lord Pethick Lawrence as Chairman, Sir Stafford Cripps and A.V.Alexander) will visit India.
The mission held talks with the INC and ML to bring about acceptance of their proposals.
On May 16, 1946, the mission put towards its proposals. It rejected the demand for separate Pakistan and instead a federal union consisting of British India and the Princely States was suggested.
Both Congress and Muslims League accepted it.
Formation of Interim Government (Sept 2, 1946):
Based on Cabinet Mission Plan, an interim government consisting of Congress nominees was formed on Sept.2, 1946. J.L.Nehru was its Vice-President and the Governor-General remained as its President.
Jinnah's Direct Action Resolution (Aug 16, 1946):
Jinnah was alarmed at the results of the elections because the Muslim League was in danger of being totally eclipsed in the constituent assembly.
Therefore, Muslim League withdrew its acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan on July 29, 1946.
It passed a 'Direct action' resolution, which condemned both the British Government and the Congress (Aug 16, 1946). It resulted in heavy communal riots.
Jinnah celebrated Pakistan Day on Mar 27, 1947.
Formation of Constituent Assembly (Dec 9, 1946):
The Constituent assembly met on Dec 9, 1946 and Dr.Rajendra Prasad was elected as its president.
Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947):
On June 3, 1947, Lord Mountbatten put forward his plan which outlined the steps for the solution of India's political problem. The outlines of the Plan were:
India to be divided into India and Pakistan.
Bengal and Punjab will be partitioned and a referendum in NEFP and Sylhet district of Assam would be held.
There would be a separate constitutional assembly for Pakistan to frame its constitution.
The Princely states would enjoy the liberty to join either India or Pakistan or even remain independent.
Aug.15, 1947 was the date fixed for handing over power to India and Pakistan.
The British govt. passed the Indian Independence Act of 1947 in July 1947, which contained the major provisions put forward by the Mountbatten plan.
Partition and Independence (Aug 1947):
All political parties accepted the Mountbatten plan.
At the time of independence, there were 562 small and big Princely States in India.
Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, the first home minister, used iron hand in this regard. By August 15, 1947, all the States, with a few exceptions like Kashmir, Hyderabad and Junagarh had signed the Instrument of Accession. Goa was with the Portuguese and Pondicherry with the French.
1.Lord William Bentinck (1828 – 1835):
Carried out the social reforms like Prohibition of Sati (1829) and elimination of thugs (1830).
Made English the Medium of higher education in the country (After the recommendations of Macaulay).
Suppressed female infanticide and child sacrifice.
Charter Act of 1833 was passed; made him the first Governor General of India. Before him, the designation was Governor General of Bengal.
2.Sir Charles Metcalfe (1835 – 1836): Abolished all restrictions on vernacular press (called Liberator of the Press).
3.Lord Auckland (1836 – 1842): The most important event of his reign was the First Afghan War, which proved to be a disaster for the English.
4.Lord Ellenborough (1842 – 1844)
5.Lord Hardinge I (1844 – 1848)
6.Lord Dalhousie (1848 – 1856):
Opened the first Indian Railway in 1853 (from Bombay to Thane).
Laid out the telegraph lines in 1853 (First was from Calcutta to Agra).
Introduced the Doctrine of Lapse and captured Satara (1848), Jaipur and Sambhalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853) and Nagpur (1854).
Established the postal system on the modern lines through the length and breadth of the country, which made communication easier.
Started the Public Works Department. Many bridges were constructed and the work on Grand Trunk Road was started. The harbors of Karachi, Bombay and Calcutta were also developed.
Made Shimla the summer capital.
Started Engineering College at Roorkee.
Encouraged science, forestry, commerce, mineralogy and industry.
In 1854, "Wood's Dispatch' was passed, which provided for the properly articulated system of education from the primary school to the university.
Due to Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar's efforts, remarriage of widows was legalized by Widow Remarriage Act, 1856).
Newspaper Journals
Newspaper/JournalFounder/Editor
Bengal Gazette(1780) (India's first newspaper) J.K.Hikki
Kesari B.G.Tilak
Maharatta B.G.Tilak
Sudharak G.K.Gokhale
Amrita Bazar Patrika Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh
Vande Mataram Aurobindo Ghosh
Native Opinion V.N.Mandalik
Kavivachan Sudha Bhartendu Harishchandra
Rast Goftar (First newspaper in Gujarati Dadabhai Naoroji
New India (Weekly) Bipin Chandra Pal
Statesman Robert Knight
HinduVir Raghavacharya and G.S.Aiyar
Sandhya B.B.Upadhyaya
Vichar LahiriKrishnashastri Chiplunkar
Hindu PatriotGirish Chandra Ghosh (later Harish Chandra Mukherji)
Som PrakashIshwar Chandra Vidyasagar
YugantarBhupendranath Datta and Barinder Kumar Ghosh
Bombay ChronicleFiroze Shah Mehta
HindustanM.M.Malviya
MooknayakB.R.Ambedkar
ComradeMohammed Ali
Tahzib-ul-AkhlaqSir Syyed Ahmed Khan
Al-HilalAbdul Kalam Azad
Al-BalaghAbdul Kalam Azad
IndependentMotilal Nehru
PunjabiLala Lajpat Rai
New India (Daily)Annie Besant
CommonwealAnnie Besant
PratapGanesh Shankar Vidyarthi
Essays in Indian EconomicsM.G.Ranade
Samvad Kaumudi (Bengali)Ram Mohan Roy
Mirat-ul-AkhbarRam Mohan Roy (first Persian newspaper)
Indian MirrorDevendra Nath Tagore
Nav JeevanM.K.Gandhi
Young IndiaM.K.Gandhi
HarijanM.K.Gandhi
Prabudha BharatSwami Vivekananda
UdbodhanaSwami Vivekananda
Indian SocialistShyamji Krishna Verma
Talwar (in Berlin)Birendra Nath Chattopadhyaya
Free Hindustan (in Vancouver)Tarak Nath Das
Hindustan TimesK.M.Pannikar
KrantiMirajkar, Joglekar, Ghate
Viceroys Of India
Lord Canning (1856 – 1862):
The last Governor General and the first Viceroy.
Mutiny took place in his time.
On Nov, 1858, the rule passed on to the crown.
Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse.
The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were established in 1857.
Indian Councils Act was passed in 1861.
Lord Elgin (1862 – 1863)
Lord Lawrence (1864 – 1869):
Telegraphic communication was opened with Europe.
High Courts were established at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1865.
Expanded canal works and railways.
Created the Indian Forest department.
Lord Mayo (1869 – 1872):
Started the process of financial decentralization in India.
Established the Rajkot college at Kathiarwar and Mayo College at Ajmer for the Indian princes.
For the first time in Indian history, a census was held in 1871.
Organised the Statistical Survey of India.
Was the only Viceroy to be murdered in office by a Pathan convict in the Andamans in 1872.
Lord Northbrook (1872 – 1876):
Lord Lytton (1876 – 1880):
Known as the Viceroy to reverse characters.
Organised the Grand 'Delhi Durbar' in 1877 to decorate Queen Victoria with the title of 'Kaiser – I – Hind'.
Arms Act(1878) made it mandatory for Indians to acquire license for arms.
Passed the infamous Vernacular Press Act (1878).
Lord Ripon (1880 – 1884):
Liberal person, who sympathized with Indians.
Repeated the Vernacular Press Act (1882)
Passed the local self – government Act (1882)
Took steps to improve primary & secondary education (on William Hunter Commission's recommendations).
The I Factory Act, 1881, aimed at prohibiting child labour.
Passed the libert Bill (1883) which enabled Indian district magistrates to try European criminals. But this was withdrawn later.
Lord Dufferin (1884 – 1888):
Indian National Congress was formed during his tenure.
Lord Lansdowne (1888 – 1894):
II Factory Act (1891) granted a weekly holiday and stipulated working hours for women and children, although it failed to address concerns such as work hours for men.
Categorization of Civil Services into Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate.
Indian Council Act of 1892 was passed.
Appointment of Durand Commission to define the line between British India and Afghanistan.
Lord Elgin II (1894 – 1899):
Great famine of 1896 – 1897. Lyall Commission was appointed.
Lord Curzon (1899 – 1905):
Passed the Indian Universities Act (1904) in which official control over the Universities was increased.
Partitioned Bengal (October 16, 1905) into two provinces 1, Bengal (proper), 2.East Bengal & Assam.
Appointed a Police Commission under Sir Andrew Frazer to enquire into the police administration of every province.
The risings of the frontier tribes in 1897 – 98 led him to create the North Western Frontier Province(NWFP).
Passed the Ancient Monuments Protection Act (1904), to restore India's cultural heritage. Thus the Archaeological Survey of India was established.
Passed the Indian Coinage and Paper Currency Act (1899) and put India on a gold standard.
Extended railways to a great extent.
Lord Minto (1905 – 1910):
There was great political unrest in India. Various acts were passed to curb the revolutionary activities. Extremists like Lala Laipat Rai and Ajit Singh (in May, 1907) and Bal Gangadhar Tilak (in July, 1908) were sent to Mandalay jail in Burma.
The Indian Council Act of 1909 or the Morley – Minto Reforms was passed.
Lord Hardinge (1910 – 1916):
Held a durbar in dec, 1911 to celebrate the coronation of King George V.
Partition of Bengal was cancelled (1911), capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi (1911).
A bomb was thrown at him; but he escaped unhurt (Dec 23, 1912).
Gandhiji came back to India from S.Africa (1915).
Annie Besant announced the Home Rule Movement.
Lord Chelmsford (1916 – 1921):
August Declaration of 1917, whereby control over the Indian government would be gradually transferred to the Indian people.
The government of India Act in 1919 (Montague – Chelmsford reforms) was passed.
Rowlatt Act of 1919; Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919).
Non – Cooperation Movement.
An Indian Sir S.P.Sinha was appointed the Governor of Bengal.
A Women's university was founded at Poona in 1916.
Saddler Commission was appointed in 1917 to envisage new educational policy.
Lord Reading (1921 – 1926):
Rowlatt act was repeated along with the Press act of 1910.
Suppressed non-cooperation movement.
Prince of Wales visited India in Nov.1921.
Moplah rebellion (1921) took place in Kerala.
Ahmedabad session of 1921.
Formation of Swaraj Party.
Vishwabharati University started functioning in 1922.
Communist part was founded in 1921 by M.N.Roy.
Kakory Train Robbery on Aug 9, 1925.
Communal riots of 1923 – 25 in Multan, Amritsar, Delhi, etc.
Swami Shraddhanand, a great nationalist and a leader of the Arya Samajists, was murdered in communal orgy.
Lord Irwin (1926 – 1931):
Simon Commission visited India in 1928.
Congress passed the Indian Resolution in 1929.
Dandi March (Mar 12, 1930).
Civil Disobedience Movement (1930).
First Round Table Conference held in England in 1930.
Gandhi – Irwin Pact (Mar 5, 1931) was signed and Civil Disobediance Movement was withdrawn.
Martydorm of Jatin Das after 64 days hunger strike (1929).
Lord Willington (1931 – 1936):
Second Round Table conference in London in 1931.
On his return Gandhiji was again arrested and Civil Disobedience Movement was resumed in Jan 1932.
Communal Awards (Aug 16, 1932) assigned seats to different religious communities. Gandhiji went on a epic fast in protest against this division.
Third Round Table conference in 1932.
Poona Pact was signed.
Government of India Act (1935) was passed.
Lord Linlithgow (1936 – 1944):
Govt. of India Act enforced in the provinces. Congress ministries formed in 8 out of 11 provinces. They remained in power for about 2 years till Oct 1939, when they gave up offices on the issue of India having been dragged into the II World War. The Muslim League observed the days as 'Deliverance Say' (22 December)
Churchill became the British PM in May, 1940. He declared that the Atlantic Charter (issued jointly by the UK and US, stating to give sovereign rights to those who have been forcibly deprived of them) does not apply to India.
Outbreak of World War II in 1939.
Cripps Mission in 1942.
Quit India Movement (August 8, 1942).
Lord Wavell (1944 – 1947):
Arranged the Shimla Conference on June 25, 1945 with Indian National Congress and Muslim League; failed.
Cabinet Mission Plan (May 16, 1946).
Elections to the constituent assembly were held and an Interim Govt. was appointed under Nehru.
First meeting of the constituent assembly was held on Dec. 9, 1946.
Lord Mountbatten (Mar.1947 – Aug.1947):
Last Viceroy of British India and the first Governor General of free India.
Partition of India decided by the June 3 Plan.
Indian Independence Act passed by the British parliament on July 4, 1947, by which India became independent on August 15, 1947.
Retried in June 1948 and was succeeded by C.Rajagopalachari (the first and the last Indian Governor General of free
Important National Activities
The Indian National Congress:
Formed in 1885 by A.O.Hume, an Englishman and a retired civil servant.
First session in Bombay under W.C.Banerjee in 1885 (72 delegates attended it).
In the first two decades (1885 – 1905), quite moderate in its approach and confided in British justice and generosity.
But the repressive measures of the British gave rise to extremists within Congress like Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal, Bal, Pal).
Partition of Bengal:
By Lord Curzon on Oct 16, 1905, through a royal Proclamation, reducing the old province of Bengal in size by creating East Bengal and Assam out of rest of Bengal.
The objective was to set up a communal gulf between Hindus and Muslims.
A mighty upsurge swept the country against the partition. National movement found real expression in the movement against the partition of Bengal in 1905.
Swadeshi Movement (1905):
Lal, Bal, Pal, and Aurobindo Ghosh played the important role.
INC took the Swadeshi call first at the Banaras Session, 1905 presided over by G.K.Gokhale.
Bonfires of foreign goods were conducted at various places.
Formation of Muslim League (1906):
Setup in 1906 under the leadership of Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk.
It was a loyalist, communal and conservative political organization which supported the partition of Bengal, opposed the Swadeshi movement, demanded special safeguards to its community and a separate electorate for Muslims.
Demand for Swaraj:
In Dec 1906 at Calcutta, the INC under Dadabhai Naoroji adopted 'Swaraj' (Self-govt) as the goal of Indian people.
Surat Session of Indian National Congress (1907):
The INC split into two groups – The extremists and The moderates, at the Surat session in 1907. Extremists were led by Bal, Pal, Lal while the moderates by G.K.Gokhale.
Indian Councils Act or Minto Morley Reforms (1909):
Besides other constitutional measures, it envisaged a separate electorate for Muslims.
Aimed at dividing the nationalist ranks and at rallying the Moderates and the Muslims to the Government's side.
Ghadar Party (1913):
Formed by Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das and Sohan Singh Bhakna.
HQ was at San Francisco.
Home Rule Movement (1916):
Started by B.G.Tilak(April, 1916) at Poona and Annie Besant and S.Subramania Iyer at Adyar, near Madras (Sept, 1916).
Objective: Self – government for India in the British Empire.
Tilak linked up the question of Swaraj with the demand for the formation of Linguistic States and education in vernacular language. He gave the slogan: Swaraj is my birth right and I will have it.
Lucknow Pact (1916):
Happened following a war between Britain and Turkey leading to anti-British feelings among Muslims.
Both INC and Muslim League concluded this (Congress accepted the separate electorates and both jointly demanded for a representative government and dominion status for the country).
August Declaration (1917):
After the Lucknow Pact, a British policy was announced which aimed at "increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration for progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British empire". This came to be called the August Declaration.
Rowlatt Act (March 18, 1919):
This gave unbridled powers to the govt. to arrest and imprison suspects without trial for two years maximum. This law enabled the Government to suspend the right of Habeas Corpus, which had been the foundation of civil liberties in Britain.
Caused a wave of anger in all sections. It was the first country-wide agitation by Gandhiji and marked the foundation of the Non Cooperation Movement.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919):
People were agitated over the arrest of Dr. Kitchlu and Dr. Satyapal on April 10, 1919.
General O' Dyer fires at people who assembled in the Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar.
As a result hundreds of men, women and children were killed and thousands injured.
Rabindranath Tagore returned his Knighthood in protest. Sir Shankaran Nair resigned from Viceroy's Executive Council after this.
Hunter Commission was appointed to enquire into it.
On March 13, 1940, Sardar Udham Singh killed O'Dyer when the later was addressing a meeting in Caxton Hall, London.
Khilafat Movement (1920):
Muslims were agitated by the treatment done with Turkey by the British in the treaty that followed the First World War.
Two brothers, Mohd.Ali and Shaukat Ali started this movement.
Non-cooperation Movement (1920):
It was the first mass-based political movement under Gandhiji.
Congress passed the resolution in its Calcutta session in Sept 1920.
Chauri –Chaura Incident (1922):
A mob of people at Chauri – Chaura (near Gorakhpur) clashed with police and burnt 22 policemen on February 5, 1922.
This compelled Gandhiji to withdraw the Non Cooperation movement on Feb.12, 1922.
Simon Commission (1927):
Constituted under John Simon, to review the political situation in India and to introduce further reforms and extension of parliamentary democracy.
Indian leaders opposed the commission, as there were no Indians in it.
The Government used brutal repression and police attacks to break the popular opposition. At Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was severely beaten in a lathi-charge. He succumbed to his injuries on Oct.30, 1928.
Lahore Session (1929):
On Dec.19, 1929 under the President ship of J.L.Nehru, the INC, at its Lahore Session, declared Poorna Swaraj (Complete independence) as its ultimate goal.
On Dec.31, 1929, the newly adopted tri-colour flag was unfurled and an.26, 1930 was fixed as the First Independence Day, was to be celebrated every year.
Revolutionary Activities:
The first political murder of a European was committed in 1897 at Poona by the Chapekar brothers, Damodar and Balkishan. Their target was Mr.Rand, President of the Plague Commission, but Lt.Ayerst was accidentally shot.
In 1907, Madam Bhikaiji Cama, a Parsi revolutionary unfurled the flag of India at Stuttgart Congress (of Second international).
In 1908, Khudiram Bose and Prafulla chaki threw a bomb on the carriage of kingford, the unpopular judge of Muzaffapur. Khudiram, Kanhaiyalal Dutt and Satyendranath Bose were hanged. (Alipur Case).
In 1909, M L Dhingra shot dead Col.William Curzon Whyllie, the political advisor of "India Office" in London.
In 1912, Rasbihari Bose and Sachindra Nath Sanyal threw a bomb and Lord Hardinge at Delhi. (Delhi Conspiracy Case).
In Oct, 1924, a meeting of revolutionaries from all parts of India was called at Kanpur. They setup Hindustan Socialist Republic Association/Army (HSRA).
They carried out a dacoity on the Kakori bound train on the Saharanpur-Lucknow railway line on Aug. 9, 1925.
Bhagat Singh, with his colleagues, shot dead Saunders (Asst. S.P. of Lahore, who ordered lathi charge on Lala Lajpat Rai) on Dec.17, 1928.
Then Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb in the Central Assembly on Apr 8, 1929. Thus, he, Rajguru and Sukhdev were hanged on March. 23,1931 at Lahore Jall (Lahore Conspiracy Case) and their bodies cremated at Hussainiwala near Ferozepur.
In 1929 only Jatin Das died in Lahore jail after 63 days fast to protest against horrible conditions in jail.
Surya Sen, a revolutionary of Bengal, formed the Indian Republic Army in Bengal. In 1930, he masterminded the raid on Chittagong armoury. He was hanged in 1933.
In 1931, Chandrashekhar Azad shot himself at Alfred Park in Allahabad.
Dandi March (1930):
Also called the Salt Satyagraha.
Along with 78 followers, Gandhiji started his march from Sabarmati Ashram on March 12, 1930 for the small village Dandhi to break the salt law.
He reached the seashore on Apr.6, 1930.
He picked a handful of salt and inaugurated the Civil Disobedience Movement.
First Round Table conference (1930):
It was the first conference arranged between the British and Indians as equals. It was held on Nov.12, 1930 in London to discuss Simon commission.
Boycotted by INC, Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, Liberals and some others were there.
Gandhi Irwin Pact (1931):
Moderate Statesman, Sapru, Jaikar and Srinivas Shastri initiated efforts to break the ice between Gandhiji and the government.
The two (government represented by Irwin and INC by Gandhiji) signed a pact on March 5, 1931.
In this the INC called off the civil disobedience movement and agreed to join the second round table conference.
The government on its part released the political prisoners and conceded the right to make salt for consumption for villages along the coast.
Second Round Table Conference (1931):
Gandhiji represented the INC and went to London to meet British P.M. Ramsay Macdonald.
However, the session was soon deadlocked on the minorities issue and this time separate electorates was demanded not only by Muslims but also by Depressed Classes, Indian Christians and Anglo – Indians.
The Communal Award (Aug 16,1932):
Announced by Ramsay McDonald. It showed divide and rule policy of the British.
Envisaged representation of Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo Indians, women and even Backward classes.
Gandhiji, who was in Yeravada jail at that time, started a fast unto death against it.
Poona Pact (September 25, 1932):
After the announcement of communal award and subsequent fast of Gandhiji, mass meeting took place almost everywhere.
Political leaders like Madan Mohan Malviya, B.R.Ambedkar and M.C.Rajah became active.
Eventually Poona pact was reached and Gandhiji broke his fact on the sixth day (Sept 25, 1932).
In this, the idea of separate electorate for the depressed classes was abandoned, but seats reserved to them in the provincial legislature were increased.
Third Round Table Conference (1932):
Proved fruitless as most of the national leaders were in prison. The discussions led to the passing of the Government of India Act, 1935.
Demand For Pakistan:
In 1930, Iqbal suggested that the Frontier Province, Baluchistan, Sindh and Kashmir be made the Muslim State within the federation.
Chaudhary Rehmat Ali gave the term Pakistan in 1923.
Mohd. Ali Jinnah of Bombay gave it practicality.
Muslim League first passed the proposal of separate Pakistan in its Lahore session in 1940.
The Cripps Mission – 1942:
In Dec. 1941, Japan entered the World War – II and advanced towards Indian borders. By March 7, 1942, Rangoon fell and Japan occupied the entire S E Asia.
The British govt. with a view to getting co-operation from Indians sent Sir Stafford Cripps, leader of the House of Commons to settle terms with the Indian leaders.
He offered a draft which proposed dominion status to be granted after the war.
Rejected by the Congress as it didn't want to rely upon future promises.
Gandhiji termed it as a post dated cheque in a crashing bank.
The Revolt of 1942 & The Quit India Movement:
Called the Vardha Proposal and Leaderless Revolt.
The resolution was passed on Aug.8, 1942, at Bombay. Gandhiji gave the slogan 'Do or Die'.
On Aug 9, the Congress was banned and its important leaders were arrested.
The arrests provoked indignation among the masses and, there being no program of action, the movement became spontaneous and violent. Violence spread throughout the country.
The movement was however crushed.
The Indian National Army:
Founded by Rasbehari Bose with Captain Mohan Singh.
S.C.Bose secretly escaped from India in Jain 1941, and reached Berlin. In July 1943, he joined the INA at Singapore. There, Rasbehari Bose handed over the leadership to him.
The soldiers were mostly raised from Indian soldiers of the British army who had been taken prisoners by the Japanese after they conquered S.E.Asia.
Two INA head quarters were Rangoon and Singapore (formed in Singapore).
INA had three fighting brigades named after Gandhiji, Azad and Nehru. Rani Jhansi Brigade was an exclusive women force.
The Cabinet Mission Plan (1946):
The struggle for freedom entered a decisive phase in the year 1945-46. The new Labour Party PM.Lord Attlee, made a declaration on March 15, 1946, that British Cabinet Mission (comprising of Lord Pethick Lawrence as Chairman, Sir Stafford Cripps and A.V.Alexander) will visit India.
The mission held talks with the INC and ML to bring about acceptance of their proposals.
On May 16, 1946, the mission put towards its proposals. It rejected the demand for separate Pakistan and instead a federal union consisting of British India and the Princely States was suggested.
Both Congress and Muslims League accepted it.
Formation of Interim Government (Sept 2, 1946):
Based on Cabinet Mission Plan, an interim government consisting of Congress nominees was formed on Sept.2, 1946. J.L.Nehru was its Vice-President and the Governor-General remained as its President.
Jinnah's Direct Action Resolution (Aug 16, 1946):
Jinnah was alarmed at the results of the elections because the Muslim League was in danger of being totally eclipsed in the constituent assembly.
Therefore, Muslim League withdrew its acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan on July 29, 1946.
It passed a 'Direct action' resolution, which condemned both the British Government and the Congress (Aug 16, 1946). It resulted in heavy communal riots.
Jinnah celebrated Pakistan Day on Mar 27, 1947.
Formation of Constituent Assembly (Dec 9, 1946):
The Constituent assembly met on Dec 9, 1946 and Dr.Rajendra Prasad was elected as its president.
Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947):
On June 3, 1947, Lord Mountbatten put forward his plan which outlined the steps for the solution of India's political problem. The outlines of the Plan were:
India to be divided into India and Pakistan.
Bengal and Punjab will be partitioned and a referendum in NEFP and Sylhet district of Assam would be held.
There would be a separate constitutional assembly for Pakistan to frame its constitution.
The Princely states would enjoy the liberty to join either India or Pakistan or even remain independent.
Aug.15, 1947 was the date fixed for handing over power to India and Pakistan.
The British govt. passed the Indian Independence Act of 1947 in July 1947, which contained the major provisions put forward by the Mountbatten plan.
Partition and Independence (Aug 1947):
All political parties accepted the Mountbatten plan.
At the time of independence, there were 562 small and big Princely States in India.
Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, the first home minister, used iron hand in this regard. By August 15, 1947, all the States, with a few exceptions like Kashmir, Hyderabad and Junagarh had signed the Instrument of Accession. Goa was with the Portuguese and Pondicherry with the French.
Five years plan
Five Year Plans
1First Plan (1951 - 56)It was based on Harrod-Domar Model.
Community Development Program was launched in 1952.
Emphasized on agriculture, price stability, power & transport.
It was more than a success, because of good harvests in the last two years.
2Second Plan (1956 - 61)Also called Mahalanobis Plan after its chief architect.
Its objective was rapid industrialization.
Advocated huge imports which led to emptying of funds leading to foreign loans. It shifted basic emphasis from agriculture to industry far too soon. During this plan, price level increased by 30%, against a decline of 13% during the First Plan.
3Third Plan (1961 - 66)At its conception time, it was felt that Indian economy has entered a take-off stage. Therefore, its aim was to make India a 'self-reliant' and 'self-generating' economy.
Also, it was realized from the experience of first two plans that agriculture should be given the top priority to suffice the requirement of export and industry.
Complete failure due to unforeseen misfortunes, viz. Chinese aggression (1962), Indo-Pak war (1965), severest drought in 100 years (1965-66).
4Three Annual Plans (1966-69)Plan holiday for 3years. The prevailing crisis in agriculture and serious food shortage necessitated the emhasis on agriculture during the Annual Plans.
During these plans a whole new agricultural strategy involving wide-spread distribution of High-Yielding Varieties of seeds, the extensive use of fertilizers, exploitation of irrigation potential and soil conservation was put into action to tide-over the crisis in agricultural production.
During the Annual Plans, the economy basically absorbed the shocks given during the Third Plan, making way for a planned growth.
5Fourth Plan (1969 - 74)Main emphasis on agriculture's growth rate so that a chain reaction can start.
Fared well in the first two years with record production, last three years failure because of poor monsoon.
Had to tackle the influx of Bangladeshi refugees before and after 1971 Indo-Pak war.
6Fifth Plan(1974-79)The fifth plan prepared and launched by D.D. Dhar proposed to achieve two main objectives viz, 'removal of poverty' (Garibi Hatao) and 'attainment of self reliance', through promotion of high rate of growth, better distribution of income and a very significant growth in the domestic rate of savings.
The plan was terminated in 1978 (instead of 1979) when Janta Govt.came to power.
7Rolling Plan (1978 - 80)There were 2 Sixth Plans. One by Janta Govt. (for 78-83) which was in operation for 2 years only and the other by the Congress Govt. when it returned to power in 1980.
8Sixth Plan (1980 - 85)Objectives: Increase in national income, modernization of technology, ensuring continuous decrease in poverty and unemployment, population control through family planning, etc.
9Seventh Plan (1985 - 90)The Seventh plan emphasized policies and programs which aimed at rapid growth in food-grains production, increased employment opportunities and productivity within the framework of basic tenants of planning.
It was a great success, the economy recorded 6% growth rate against the targeted 5%.
10Eighth Plan (1992 - 97)The eighth plan was postponed by two years because of political upheavals at the Centre and it was launched after a worsening Balance of Payment position and inflation during 1990-91.
The plan undertook various drastic policy measures to combat the bad economic situation and to undertake an annual average growth of 5.6%
Some of the main economic performances during eighth plan period were rapid economic growth, high growth of agriculture and allied sector, and manufacturing sector, growth in exports and imports, improvement in trade and current account deficit.
11Ninth Plan (1997- 2002)It was developed in the context of four important dimensions: Quality of life, generation of productive employment, regional balance and self-reliance.
12Tenth Plan (2002 - 2007)To achieve the growth rate of GDP @ 8%.
Reduction of poverty ratio to 20% by 2007 and to 10% by 2012.
Providing gainful high quality employment to the addition to the labour force over the tenth plan period.
Universal access to primary education by 2007.
Reduction in gender gaps in literacy and wage rates by atleast 50% by 2007.
Reduction in decadal rate of population growth between 2001 and 2011 to 16.2%.
Increase in literacy rate to 72% within the plan period and to 80% by 2012.
Reduction of Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) to 45 per 1000 live births by 2007 and to 28 by 2012.
Increase in forest and tree cover to 25% by 2007 and 33% by 2012.
All villages to have sustained access to potable drinking water by 2012.
Cleaning of all major polluted rivers by 2007 and other notified stretches by 2012.
Growth During Five Year Plans
PlanTargetActual
First Plan (1951 - 56)2.9%3.6%
Second Plan (1956 - 61)4.5%4.3%
Third Plan (1961 - 66)5.6%2.8%
Fourth Plan (1969 - 1974)5.7%3.3%
Fifth Plan (1974 - 79)4.4%4.8%
Sixth Plan (1980 - 85)5.2%6.0%
Seventh Plan (1985 - 90)5.0%6.0%
Eighth Plan (1992 - 97)5.6%6.8%
Ninth Plan (1997 - 2002)6.5%5.4%
Tenth Plan (2002 - 2007)8.0%
Important Antipoverty Employment Generation Programs
1Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGRY)Started on April 1, 1999. It has replaced the following programs:
Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP) : Started in 1978 - 79).
Training Rural Youth for Self -Employment (TRYSEM): Started in 1978-79.
Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA): Started in 1978 -79.
Ganga Kalyan Yojana (GKY): Started in 1997.
Million Wells Scheme (MWS): Started in 1989.
Supply of Improved Tool-kits to Rural Artisans (SITRA).
The yojana takes into account all the strengths and weaknesses of the earlier self-employment programs.
Every assisted family will be brought above the poverty line. It is proposed to cover 30% of the rural poor in each block. To Target at atleast 50% Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, 40% women and 3% disabled.
2Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY)It was introduced in 2000-01 with the objective of focusing on village level development in five critical areas I.e., primary health, primary education, housing, rural roads and drinking water and nutrition with the overall objective of improving the quality of life of people in rural areas. Rural electrification was added as an additional component from 2001-02.
It has the following components:
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY)
Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (Gramin Awas).
Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (Rural Drinking Water Project).
3Sampoorna Gramin Rozgar Yojana (SGRY)It was started on Sept. 25,2001, with the mergence of the Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) and the Jawahar Gram Samriddhi Yojana (JGSY). Earlier Jawahar Rozgar Yojana, which started in 1989, was merged with Jawahar Gram Samriddhi Yojana.
The objective of the program is to provide additional wage employment in rural areas and also to provide food security.
4Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY)The SJSRY came into operation in Dec, 1997, through a restructuring and streamlining of the earlier urban poverty alleviation programs, the Nehru Rozgar Yojana (NRY), the Urban Basic Services for the Poor (UBSP) and the Prime Minister's Integrated Urban Poverty alleviation Program (PMIUPEP).
It seeks to provide employment to the urban employed or underemployed living below poverty line and educated up to IX standard through encouraging the setting up of self-employment ventures or provision of wage employment.
5Antyodaya Anna YojanaLaunched on Dec. 25,2000. The scheme aims at providing food security to poor families.
The scheme contemplates identification of 10 million 'poorest of the poor' families and providing the \m with 25kg of food grains per family per month at a low price of Rs.2 per Kg for wheat and Rs.3 per Kg for rice.
6Annapurna YojanaInaugurated on March 19, 1999.
Initially the scheme provided 10 kg food grains to senior citizens who were eligible fore old age pension but could not get it due to one reason or the other. Later on, it was extended to cover those people who get old age pensions.
Food grains are provided to the beneficiaries at subsidized rates of Rs.2 per kg of wheat and Rs.3 per kg of rice
1First Plan (1951 - 56)It was based on Harrod-Domar Model.
Community Development Program was launched in 1952.
Emphasized on agriculture, price stability, power & transport.
It was more than a success, because of good harvests in the last two years.
2Second Plan (1956 - 61)Also called Mahalanobis Plan after its chief architect.
Its objective was rapid industrialization.
Advocated huge imports which led to emptying of funds leading to foreign loans. It shifted basic emphasis from agriculture to industry far too soon. During this plan, price level increased by 30%, against a decline of 13% during the First Plan.
3Third Plan (1961 - 66)At its conception time, it was felt that Indian economy has entered a take-off stage. Therefore, its aim was to make India a 'self-reliant' and 'self-generating' economy.
Also, it was realized from the experience of first two plans that agriculture should be given the top priority to suffice the requirement of export and industry.
Complete failure due to unforeseen misfortunes, viz. Chinese aggression (1962), Indo-Pak war (1965), severest drought in 100 years (1965-66).
4Three Annual Plans (1966-69)Plan holiday for 3years. The prevailing crisis in agriculture and serious food shortage necessitated the emhasis on agriculture during the Annual Plans.
During these plans a whole new agricultural strategy involving wide-spread distribution of High-Yielding Varieties of seeds, the extensive use of fertilizers, exploitation of irrigation potential and soil conservation was put into action to tide-over the crisis in agricultural production.
During the Annual Plans, the economy basically absorbed the shocks given during the Third Plan, making way for a planned growth.
5Fourth Plan (1969 - 74)Main emphasis on agriculture's growth rate so that a chain reaction can start.
Fared well in the first two years with record production, last three years failure because of poor monsoon.
Had to tackle the influx of Bangladeshi refugees before and after 1971 Indo-Pak war.
6Fifth Plan(1974-79)The fifth plan prepared and launched by D.D. Dhar proposed to achieve two main objectives viz, 'removal of poverty' (Garibi Hatao) and 'attainment of self reliance', through promotion of high rate of growth, better distribution of income and a very significant growth in the domestic rate of savings.
The plan was terminated in 1978 (instead of 1979) when Janta Govt.came to power.
7Rolling Plan (1978 - 80)There were 2 Sixth Plans. One by Janta Govt. (for 78-83) which was in operation for 2 years only and the other by the Congress Govt. when it returned to power in 1980.
8Sixth Plan (1980 - 85)Objectives: Increase in national income, modernization of technology, ensuring continuous decrease in poverty and unemployment, population control through family planning, etc.
9Seventh Plan (1985 - 90)The Seventh plan emphasized policies and programs which aimed at rapid growth in food-grains production, increased employment opportunities and productivity within the framework of basic tenants of planning.
It was a great success, the economy recorded 6% growth rate against the targeted 5%.
10Eighth Plan (1992 - 97)The eighth plan was postponed by two years because of political upheavals at the Centre and it was launched after a worsening Balance of Payment position and inflation during 1990-91.
The plan undertook various drastic policy measures to combat the bad economic situation and to undertake an annual average growth of 5.6%
Some of the main economic performances during eighth plan period were rapid economic growth, high growth of agriculture and allied sector, and manufacturing sector, growth in exports and imports, improvement in trade and current account deficit.
11Ninth Plan (1997- 2002)It was developed in the context of four important dimensions: Quality of life, generation of productive employment, regional balance and self-reliance.
12Tenth Plan (2002 - 2007)To achieve the growth rate of GDP @ 8%.
Reduction of poverty ratio to 20% by 2007 and to 10% by 2012.
Providing gainful high quality employment to the addition to the labour force over the tenth plan period.
Universal access to primary education by 2007.
Reduction in gender gaps in literacy and wage rates by atleast 50% by 2007.
Reduction in decadal rate of population growth between 2001 and 2011 to 16.2%.
Increase in literacy rate to 72% within the plan period and to 80% by 2012.
Reduction of Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) to 45 per 1000 live births by 2007 and to 28 by 2012.
Increase in forest and tree cover to 25% by 2007 and 33% by 2012.
All villages to have sustained access to potable drinking water by 2012.
Cleaning of all major polluted rivers by 2007 and other notified stretches by 2012.
Growth During Five Year Plans
PlanTargetActual
First Plan (1951 - 56)2.9%3.6%
Second Plan (1956 - 61)4.5%4.3%
Third Plan (1961 - 66)5.6%2.8%
Fourth Plan (1969 - 1974)5.7%3.3%
Fifth Plan (1974 - 79)4.4%4.8%
Sixth Plan (1980 - 85)5.2%6.0%
Seventh Plan (1985 - 90)5.0%6.0%
Eighth Plan (1992 - 97)5.6%6.8%
Ninth Plan (1997 - 2002)6.5%5.4%
Tenth Plan (2002 - 2007)8.0%
Important Antipoverty Employment Generation Programs
1Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGRY)Started on April 1, 1999. It has replaced the following programs:
Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP) : Started in 1978 - 79).
Training Rural Youth for Self -Employment (TRYSEM): Started in 1978-79.
Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA): Started in 1978 -79.
Ganga Kalyan Yojana (GKY): Started in 1997.
Million Wells Scheme (MWS): Started in 1989.
Supply of Improved Tool-kits to Rural Artisans (SITRA).
The yojana takes into account all the strengths and weaknesses of the earlier self-employment programs.
Every assisted family will be brought above the poverty line. It is proposed to cover 30% of the rural poor in each block. To Target at atleast 50% Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, 40% women and 3% disabled.
2Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY)It was introduced in 2000-01 with the objective of focusing on village level development in five critical areas I.e., primary health, primary education, housing, rural roads and drinking water and nutrition with the overall objective of improving the quality of life of people in rural areas. Rural electrification was added as an additional component from 2001-02.
It has the following components:
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY)
Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (Gramin Awas).
Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (Rural Drinking Water Project).
3Sampoorna Gramin Rozgar Yojana (SGRY)It was started on Sept. 25,2001, with the mergence of the Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) and the Jawahar Gram Samriddhi Yojana (JGSY). Earlier Jawahar Rozgar Yojana, which started in 1989, was merged with Jawahar Gram Samriddhi Yojana.
The objective of the program is to provide additional wage employment in rural areas and also to provide food security.
4Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY)The SJSRY came into operation in Dec, 1997, through a restructuring and streamlining of the earlier urban poverty alleviation programs, the Nehru Rozgar Yojana (NRY), the Urban Basic Services for the Poor (UBSP) and the Prime Minister's Integrated Urban Poverty alleviation Program (PMIUPEP).
It seeks to provide employment to the urban employed or underemployed living below poverty line and educated up to IX standard through encouraging the setting up of self-employment ventures or provision of wage employment.
5Antyodaya Anna YojanaLaunched on Dec. 25,2000. The scheme aims at providing food security to poor families.
The scheme contemplates identification of 10 million 'poorest of the poor' families and providing the \m with 25kg of food grains per family per month at a low price of Rs.2 per Kg for wheat and Rs.3 per Kg for rice.
6Annapurna YojanaInaugurated on March 19, 1999.
Initially the scheme provided 10 kg food grains to senior citizens who were eligible fore old age pension but could not get it due to one reason or the other. Later on, it was extended to cover those people who get old age pensions.
Food grains are provided to the beneficiaries at subsidized rates of Rs.2 per kg of wheat and Rs.3 per kg of rice
Some Facts abaut india
Hill Stations India
Hill StationsState Name
Almora (Kumaon hills)Uttar Pradesh
Cherrapunji (Shillong)Meghalaya
Coonoor (Nilgiri hills)Tamil Nadu
DalhousieHimachal Pradesh
DarjeelingWest Bengal
GulmargKashmir (Highest)
Kasauli (Shimla)Himachal Pradesh
KodaikanalTamil Nadu
MahabaleshwarMaharashtra
Mt. AbuRajasthan
MussoorieUttaranchal
NainitalUttaranchal
OotacamundTamil Nadu
PachmarhiMadhya Pradesh
RanchiJharkhand
Shillong (Khasi hills)Meghalaya
ShimlaHimachal Pradesh
SrinagarJammu & Kashmir
Important Crops India
1RiceWest Bengal, Punjab, UP
2WheatUP, Punjab, Haryana
3MaizeMadhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka
4BajraRajasthan, Gujarat, UP
5JowarMaharashtra, Karnataka, MP, AP
6TOTAL COARSE CEREALSMaharashtra, Karnataka, UP
7TOTAL PULSESMP, UP, Maharashtra
8TOTAL FOOD GRAINSUP, Punjab, West Bengal
9GroundnutGujarat, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh
10Rapeseed And MustardRajasthan, UP, Haryana
11SoyabeanMadhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan
12SunflowerKarnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra
13TOTAL OIL SEEDSMP, Maharashtra, Rajasthan
14SugarcaneUP, Maharashtra, Karnataka
15CottonMaharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh
16Jute and MestaWB, Bihar, Assam
17TeaAssam, West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh
18CoffeeKarnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu
19RubberKerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka
20SilkKarnataka, Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh. In India all 4 varieties of silk are available; Mulberry, tussar, eri and muga. Mulberry is the main variety, while tussar is mainly found in Bihar.
21TobaccoGujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka
Important Indian Town Rivers
SNoTownRiver
1AllahabadAt the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna
2PatnaGanga
3VaranasiGanga
4KanpurGanga
5HardwarGanga
6BadrinathAlaknanda
7AgraYamuna
8DelhiYamuna
9MathuraYamuna
10FerozpurSatluj
11LudhianaSatluj
12SrinagarJhelum
13LucknowGomti
14JaunpurGomti
15AyodhyaSaryu
16BareillyRam Ganga
17AhmedabadSabarmati
18KotaChambal
19JabalpurNarmada
20PanjiMandavi
21UjjainKshipra
22SuratTapti
23JamshedpurSwarnarekha
24DibrugarhBrahmaputra
25GuwahatiBrahmaputra
26KolkataHooghly
27SambalpurMahanadi
28CuttackMahanadi
29SerirangapatnamCauvery
30HyderabadMusi
31NasikGodavari
32VijayvadaKrishna
33CurnoolTungabhadra
34TiruchirapalliCauvery
Important River Valley Projects
SnoProject NameRiver Name
1Bhakra Nangal ProjectOn Sutlaj in Punjab. Highest in India. Ht 226 m. Reservoir is called Gobind Sagar Lake.
2Mandi ProjectOn Beas in HP
3Chambal Valley ProjectOn Chambal in MP & Rajasthan. 3 dams are there: Gandhi Sagar Dam, Rana Pratap Sagar Dam and Jawahar Sagar Dam.
4Damodar Valley ProjectOn Damodar in Bihar. Based on Tennessee Valley Project, USA.
5Hirakud ProjectOn Mahanadi in Orissa. World's longest dam: 4801m
6Rihand ProjectOn Son in Mirzapur, Reservoir is called Govind Vallabh Pant reservoir.
7Kosi ProjectOn Kosi in N.Bihar.
8Mayurkashi ProjectOn Mayrukashi in WB.
9Kakrapara ProjectOn Tapi in Gujarat.
10Nizamsagar ProjectOn Manjra in AP.
11Nagarjuna Sagar ProjectOn Krishna in AP
12Tungabhadra ProjectOn Tungabhadra in AP & Karnataka
13Shivasamudram ProjectOn Cauvery in Karnataka. It is the oldest river valley project of India.
14Tata Hydel SchemeOn Bhima in Maharashtra
15Sharavathi Hydel ProjectOn Jog Falls in Karnataka
16Kundah & Periyar ProjectIn TN
17Farakka ProjectOn Ganga in WB. Apart from power and irrigation it helps to remove silt for easy navigation.
18Ukai ProjectOn Tapti in Gujarat
19Mahi ProjectOn Mahi in Gujarat
20Salal ProjectOn Chenab in J & K
21Mata Tila Multipurpose ProjectOn Betwa in UP & MP
22Thein ProjectOn Ravi, Punjab
23Pong DamOn Beas, Punjab
24Tehri ProjectOn Bhgirathi, Uttaranchal
25Sardar Sarovar ProjectOn Narmada, Gujarat/MP.
Major Ports in India
SNoWestern CoastEastern Coast
1Kandla (Child of partition)Kolkata - Haldia (riverine port)
2Mumbai (busiest and biggest)Paradip (exports raw iron into Japan)
3Jawahar Lal Nehru (fastest growing)Vishakhapatnam (deepest port)
4Marmugao (naval base also)Chennai (oldest and artificial)
5Mangalore (exports Kudremukh iron-ore)Ennore (most modern in private hands)
6Cochin (natural Harbour)Tuticorin (southernmost)
Mineral Resources of India
1CoalWest Bengal (Raniganj, Burdwan, Bankura, Purulia, Birbhum, Jalpaigudi, Darjeeling) Jharkhand (Jharia, Giridih, Kharhawadi, Bokaro, Hazaribagh, Karnapura, Rampur, Palamau), Orissa (Rampur, Hindgir, Talcher, Sambhal), Madhya Pradesh and Chhatisgarh (Rewa, Pench valley, Umaria, Korba, Sohagpur, Mand river area, Kanha valley, Betul), etc. Power sector is the largest consumer of coal in India followed by steel industry, cement industry, etc.
2ManganeseOrissa, Maharashtra (Nagpur, Bhandara, Ratnagiri), Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat, Chhindawara), Karnataka (Keonjhar, Bonai, Kalahandi), Andhra Pradesh (Kadur, Garibadi).
3CopperMadhya Pradesh (Balaghat), Rajasthan (Khetri), Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Masobani, Surda), Karnataka (Chitradurg, Hussan)
4MicaJharkhand (Hazaribagh, Giridih, Kodarma, Bihar (Gaya, Bhagalpur), Andhra Pradesh (Guntur, Vizag, Kurnool), Rajasthan (Bhilwara, Udaipur, Jaipur)
5PetroleumAssam (Digboi, Naharkatiya, Badarpur, Masinpur and Pallharia), Gujarat (Ankleshwar, Khambat, Kalol), Mumbai High, Bassein (south of Mumbai High), etc. Recently oil has been discovered in Cauvery basin, Krishna and Godawari basin, Kharmbat basin, etc.
6Oil RefineriesThere are 18 refineries in India, 16 in public sector, one in joint sector and one in private sector. Public sector refineries are located at Digboi, Guwahati, Bongaigaon, Barauni, Haldia, Koyali, Mathura, Kochi, Chennai, Vishakhapatnam, Mumbai (2), Panipat, Narimanam, Numanigarh and Tatipaka. Joint sector refinery is at Mangalore. The private sector refinery of Reliance Limited is at Jamnagar.
7IronIndia possesses Haematite, a very high-grade iron ore. In Madhya Pradesh (Bailadila, Jabalpur), Goa (North Goa), Karnataka (Bababudan hills, Chikmagalur, Hospet), Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Naomundi), Andhra Pradesh, Orissa India is the fifth largest exporter of Iron ore in the world. Japan is the biggest buyer accounting for about 3/4th of India's total exports. Major ports handling iron ore export are Vishakhapatnam, Paradip, Marmagao and Mangalore.
8BauxiteChief ore for producing aluminium. In Orissa (Kalahandi, Koraput, Sundargarh, Bolangir, Sambalpur), Jharkhand (Lohardaga, Gumla), Madhya Pradesh (Jabalpur, Mandla, Shahdol, Katni, Balaghat), Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu
9GoldKarnataka (Kolar, Hutti, Raichur), Andhra Pradesh (Ramgiri and Yeppamanna goldfields in Chittor and Anantapur districts
10Silver, Zinc and LeadRajasthan (Zawar mines near Udaipur), Andhra Pradesh (Mysore, Chitradurg), Karnataka (Kolar mines)
11UraniumJharkhand (Jaduguda), Rajasthan (Ajmer), Andhra Pradesh (Nellore, Nalgonda), Karnataka (Gulbarga)
12ThoriumKerala coast (From Monazite sand), rocks of Aravallis in Rajasthan
Hill StationsState Name
Almora (Kumaon hills)Uttar Pradesh
Cherrapunji (Shillong)Meghalaya
Coonoor (Nilgiri hills)Tamil Nadu
DalhousieHimachal Pradesh
DarjeelingWest Bengal
GulmargKashmir (Highest)
Kasauli (Shimla)Himachal Pradesh
KodaikanalTamil Nadu
MahabaleshwarMaharashtra
Mt. AbuRajasthan
MussoorieUttaranchal
NainitalUttaranchal
OotacamundTamil Nadu
PachmarhiMadhya Pradesh
RanchiJharkhand
Shillong (Khasi hills)Meghalaya
ShimlaHimachal Pradesh
SrinagarJammu & Kashmir
Important Crops India
1RiceWest Bengal, Punjab, UP
2WheatUP, Punjab, Haryana
3MaizeMadhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka
4BajraRajasthan, Gujarat, UP
5JowarMaharashtra, Karnataka, MP, AP
6TOTAL COARSE CEREALSMaharashtra, Karnataka, UP
7TOTAL PULSESMP, UP, Maharashtra
8TOTAL FOOD GRAINSUP, Punjab, West Bengal
9GroundnutGujarat, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh
10Rapeseed And MustardRajasthan, UP, Haryana
11SoyabeanMadhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan
12SunflowerKarnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra
13TOTAL OIL SEEDSMP, Maharashtra, Rajasthan
14SugarcaneUP, Maharashtra, Karnataka
15CottonMaharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh
16Jute and MestaWB, Bihar, Assam
17TeaAssam, West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh
18CoffeeKarnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu
19RubberKerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka
20SilkKarnataka, Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh. In India all 4 varieties of silk are available; Mulberry, tussar, eri and muga. Mulberry is the main variety, while tussar is mainly found in Bihar.
21TobaccoGujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka
Important Indian Town Rivers
SNoTownRiver
1AllahabadAt the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna
2PatnaGanga
3VaranasiGanga
4KanpurGanga
5HardwarGanga
6BadrinathAlaknanda
7AgraYamuna
8DelhiYamuna
9MathuraYamuna
10FerozpurSatluj
11LudhianaSatluj
12SrinagarJhelum
13LucknowGomti
14JaunpurGomti
15AyodhyaSaryu
16BareillyRam Ganga
17AhmedabadSabarmati
18KotaChambal
19JabalpurNarmada
20PanjiMandavi
21UjjainKshipra
22SuratTapti
23JamshedpurSwarnarekha
24DibrugarhBrahmaputra
25GuwahatiBrahmaputra
26KolkataHooghly
27SambalpurMahanadi
28CuttackMahanadi
29SerirangapatnamCauvery
30HyderabadMusi
31NasikGodavari
32VijayvadaKrishna
33CurnoolTungabhadra
34TiruchirapalliCauvery
Important River Valley Projects
SnoProject NameRiver Name
1Bhakra Nangal ProjectOn Sutlaj in Punjab. Highest in India. Ht 226 m. Reservoir is called Gobind Sagar Lake.
2Mandi ProjectOn Beas in HP
3Chambal Valley ProjectOn Chambal in MP & Rajasthan. 3 dams are there: Gandhi Sagar Dam, Rana Pratap Sagar Dam and Jawahar Sagar Dam.
4Damodar Valley ProjectOn Damodar in Bihar. Based on Tennessee Valley Project, USA.
5Hirakud ProjectOn Mahanadi in Orissa. World's longest dam: 4801m
6Rihand ProjectOn Son in Mirzapur, Reservoir is called Govind Vallabh Pant reservoir.
7Kosi ProjectOn Kosi in N.Bihar.
8Mayurkashi ProjectOn Mayrukashi in WB.
9Kakrapara ProjectOn Tapi in Gujarat.
10Nizamsagar ProjectOn Manjra in AP.
11Nagarjuna Sagar ProjectOn Krishna in AP
12Tungabhadra ProjectOn Tungabhadra in AP & Karnataka
13Shivasamudram ProjectOn Cauvery in Karnataka. It is the oldest river valley project of India.
14Tata Hydel SchemeOn Bhima in Maharashtra
15Sharavathi Hydel ProjectOn Jog Falls in Karnataka
16Kundah & Periyar ProjectIn TN
17Farakka ProjectOn Ganga in WB. Apart from power and irrigation it helps to remove silt for easy navigation.
18Ukai ProjectOn Tapti in Gujarat
19Mahi ProjectOn Mahi in Gujarat
20Salal ProjectOn Chenab in J & K
21Mata Tila Multipurpose ProjectOn Betwa in UP & MP
22Thein ProjectOn Ravi, Punjab
23Pong DamOn Beas, Punjab
24Tehri ProjectOn Bhgirathi, Uttaranchal
25Sardar Sarovar ProjectOn Narmada, Gujarat/MP.
Major Ports in India
SNoWestern CoastEastern Coast
1Kandla (Child of partition)Kolkata - Haldia (riverine port)
2Mumbai (busiest and biggest)Paradip (exports raw iron into Japan)
3Jawahar Lal Nehru (fastest growing)Vishakhapatnam (deepest port)
4Marmugao (naval base also)Chennai (oldest and artificial)
5Mangalore (exports Kudremukh iron-ore)Ennore (most modern in private hands)
6Cochin (natural Harbour)Tuticorin (southernmost)
Mineral Resources of India
1CoalWest Bengal (Raniganj, Burdwan, Bankura, Purulia, Birbhum, Jalpaigudi, Darjeeling) Jharkhand (Jharia, Giridih, Kharhawadi, Bokaro, Hazaribagh, Karnapura, Rampur, Palamau), Orissa (Rampur, Hindgir, Talcher, Sambhal), Madhya Pradesh and Chhatisgarh (Rewa, Pench valley, Umaria, Korba, Sohagpur, Mand river area, Kanha valley, Betul), etc. Power sector is the largest consumer of coal in India followed by steel industry, cement industry, etc.
2ManganeseOrissa, Maharashtra (Nagpur, Bhandara, Ratnagiri), Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat, Chhindawara), Karnataka (Keonjhar, Bonai, Kalahandi), Andhra Pradesh (Kadur, Garibadi).
3CopperMadhya Pradesh (Balaghat), Rajasthan (Khetri), Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Masobani, Surda), Karnataka (Chitradurg, Hussan)
4MicaJharkhand (Hazaribagh, Giridih, Kodarma, Bihar (Gaya, Bhagalpur), Andhra Pradesh (Guntur, Vizag, Kurnool), Rajasthan (Bhilwara, Udaipur, Jaipur)
5PetroleumAssam (Digboi, Naharkatiya, Badarpur, Masinpur and Pallharia), Gujarat (Ankleshwar, Khambat, Kalol), Mumbai High, Bassein (south of Mumbai High), etc. Recently oil has been discovered in Cauvery basin, Krishna and Godawari basin, Kharmbat basin, etc.
6Oil RefineriesThere are 18 refineries in India, 16 in public sector, one in joint sector and one in private sector. Public sector refineries are located at Digboi, Guwahati, Bongaigaon, Barauni, Haldia, Koyali, Mathura, Kochi, Chennai, Vishakhapatnam, Mumbai (2), Panipat, Narimanam, Numanigarh and Tatipaka. Joint sector refinery is at Mangalore. The private sector refinery of Reliance Limited is at Jamnagar.
7IronIndia possesses Haematite, a very high-grade iron ore. In Madhya Pradesh (Bailadila, Jabalpur), Goa (North Goa), Karnataka (Bababudan hills, Chikmagalur, Hospet), Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Naomundi), Andhra Pradesh, Orissa India is the fifth largest exporter of Iron ore in the world. Japan is the biggest buyer accounting for about 3/4th of India's total exports. Major ports handling iron ore export are Vishakhapatnam, Paradip, Marmagao and Mangalore.
8BauxiteChief ore for producing aluminium. In Orissa (Kalahandi, Koraput, Sundargarh, Bolangir, Sambalpur), Jharkhand (Lohardaga, Gumla), Madhya Pradesh (Jabalpur, Mandla, Shahdol, Katni, Balaghat), Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu
9GoldKarnataka (Kolar, Hutti, Raichur), Andhra Pradesh (Ramgiri and Yeppamanna goldfields in Chittor and Anantapur districts
10Silver, Zinc and LeadRajasthan (Zawar mines near Udaipur), Andhra Pradesh (Mysore, Chitradurg), Karnataka (Kolar mines)
11UraniumJharkhand (Jaduguda), Rajasthan (Ajmer), Andhra Pradesh (Nellore, Nalgonda), Karnataka (Gulbarga)
12ThoriumKerala coast (From Monazite sand), rocks of Aravallis in Rajasthan
Jainism and social cuiture
YearVenuePresident1885, 1882Bombay, AllahabadW.C.Bannerji1886CalcuttaDadabhai Naoroji1893Lahore"1906Calcutta"1887MadrasBadruddin Tyyabji (fist Muslim President)1888AllahabadGeorge Yule (first English President)1889BombaySir William Wedderburn189022.CalcuttaSir Feroze S.Mehta1895, 1902Poona, AhmedabadS.N.Banerjee1905BanarasG.K.Gokhale1907, 1908Surat, MadrasRasbehari Ghosh1909LahoreM.M.Malviya1916LucknowA.C.Majumdar (Re-union of the Congress)1917CalcuttaAnnie Besant (first woman President)1919AmritsarMotilal Nehru1920Calcutta (sp.session)Lala Lajpat Rai1921,1922Ahmedabad, GayaC.R.Das1923Delhi (sp.session)Abdul Kalam Azad (youngest President)1924BelgaonM.K.Gandhi1925KanpurSarojini Naidu (first Indian woman President)1928CalcuttaMotilal Nehru (first All India Youth Congress Formed)1929LahoreJ.L.Nehru (Poorna Swaraj resolution was passed)1931KarachiVallabhbhai Patel (Here, resolution on Fundamental rightsand the National Economic Program was passed)1932, 1933Delhi, Calcutta(Session Banned)1934BombayRajendra Prasad1936LucknowJ.L.Nehru1937FaizpurJ.L.Nehru (first session in a village)1938HaripuraS.C.Bose (a National Planning Committed set-up underJ.L.Nehru).1939TripuriS.C.Bose was re-elected but had to resign due to protestby Gandhiji (as Gandhiji supported Dr.Pattabhi Sitaramayya). Rajendra Prasadwas appointed in his place.1940RamgarhAbdul Kalam Azad1946MeerutAcharya J.B.Kriplani1948JaipurDr.Pattabhi Sitaramayya.
-- Social and Cultural Uprising
1.Brahmo Samaj: Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828. Criticized Sati Pratha, casteism and advocated widow remarriage.He was opposed to Sanskrit system of education, because he thought it would keep the country in darkness.Other important leaders were Devendranath Tagore (father of Rabindranath Tagore) and Keshap Chandra Sen.
2.Arya Samaj:Founded by Swami Dayanand (or, Moolshankar) in 1875.His motto was 'Go back to the vedas' & 'India for the Indians'. He disregarded Puranas, idol worship, casteism and untouchability. He advocated widow remarriage.Dayanand's views were published in his famous work, Satyarth Prakash. He also wrote Veda Bhashya Bhumika and Veda Bhashya.
3.Ramakrishna Mission:Founded by Vivekanand (earlier, Narendranath Dutta) (1863 – 1902) in 1897, 11 years after the death of his guru Ram Krishna Paramhans.Vivekanand attended the Parliament of Religion at Chicago in 1893.Irish woman Margaret Nobel (Known as sister Nivedita) popularized it.
4.Young Bengal Movement: Founded by Henry Louis Vivian Derozio (1809-31). He was a teacher in Hindu College in Calcutta.He urged the students to live and die for truth. He also supported women's education and their rights.
5.Veda Samaj:Veda Samaj called Brahmo Samaj of South. Started by Sridharalu Naidu.He translated books of Brahmo Dharma into Tamil and Telegu.
6.Dharma Sabha:Initiated by Radhakant Deb in 1830.Was opposed to reforms and protected orthodoxy, but played an active role in promoting western education even to girls.
7.Lokahitawadi: Started by Gopal Hari Deshmukh. Advocated western education and a rational outlook. He advocated female education for the upliftment of women.As a votary of national self-reliance, he attended Delhi durbar in 1876, wearing handspun khadi cloth.
8.Servants of India Society: Formed by Gopal Krishna Gokhale in 1915.It did notable work in providing famine relief and in improving the condition of the tribal.
9.Radhaswami Movement:Founded in 1861 by a banker of Agra, Tulsi Ram, popularly known as Shiv Dayal Saheb or Swami Maharaj.The sect preached belief in one supreme being, the Guru's supreme position and a simple social life for the believers (the Satsangis).
10.Theosophical Society:Founded by Westerners who drew inspiration from Indian thought and culture.Madam H P Blavatsky laid the foundation of the movement in US in 1875. Later, Col.M.S. Olcott of the US Army joined her.In 1882, it was shifted to India at Adyar (Tamil Nadu).Annie Besant was elected its president in 1907. She founded the Central Hindu College in 1898, which became Banaras Hindu University in 1916.
Jainism founded by Rishabha.
There were 24 Tirthankaras (Prophets or Gurus), all Kshatriyas. First was Rishabhnath (Emblem: Bull).
The 23rd Tirthankar Parshwanath (Emblem: Snake) was the son of King Ashvasena of Banaras.
The 24th and the last Tirthankar was Vardhman Mahavira (Emblem: Lion). He was born in kundagram (Distt Muzaffarpur, Bihar) in 599 BC.
His father Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrika clan.
His mother was Trishla, sister of Lichchavi Prince Chetak of Vaishali.
Mahavira was related to Bimbisara.
Married to Yashoda, had a daughter named Priyadarsena, whose husband Jamali became his first disciple.
At 30, after the death of his parents, he became an ascetic.
In the 13th year of his asceticism (on the 10th of Vaishakha), outside the town of Jrimbhikgrama, he attained supreme knowledge (kaivalya).
From now on he was called Jaina or Jitendriya and Mahavira, and his followers were named Jains. He also got the title of Arihant, i.e., worthy.
At the age of 72, he attained death at Pava, near Patna, in 527 BC.
Mahavira preached almost the same message as Parshvanath and added one more, Brahmcharya (celibacy) to it.
-- Social and Cultural Uprising
1.Brahmo Samaj: Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828. Criticized Sati Pratha, casteism and advocated widow remarriage.He was opposed to Sanskrit system of education, because he thought it would keep the country in darkness.Other important leaders were Devendranath Tagore (father of Rabindranath Tagore) and Keshap Chandra Sen.
2.Arya Samaj:Founded by Swami Dayanand (or, Moolshankar) in 1875.His motto was 'Go back to the vedas' & 'India for the Indians'. He disregarded Puranas, idol worship, casteism and untouchability. He advocated widow remarriage.Dayanand's views were published in his famous work, Satyarth Prakash. He also wrote Veda Bhashya Bhumika and Veda Bhashya.
3.Ramakrishna Mission:Founded by Vivekanand (earlier, Narendranath Dutta) (1863 – 1902) in 1897, 11 years after the death of his guru Ram Krishna Paramhans.Vivekanand attended the Parliament of Religion at Chicago in 1893.Irish woman Margaret Nobel (Known as sister Nivedita) popularized it.
4.Young Bengal Movement: Founded by Henry Louis Vivian Derozio (1809-31). He was a teacher in Hindu College in Calcutta.He urged the students to live and die for truth. He also supported women's education and their rights.
5.Veda Samaj:Veda Samaj called Brahmo Samaj of South. Started by Sridharalu Naidu.He translated books of Brahmo Dharma into Tamil and Telegu.
6.Dharma Sabha:Initiated by Radhakant Deb in 1830.Was opposed to reforms and protected orthodoxy, but played an active role in promoting western education even to girls.
7.Lokahitawadi: Started by Gopal Hari Deshmukh. Advocated western education and a rational outlook. He advocated female education for the upliftment of women.As a votary of national self-reliance, he attended Delhi durbar in 1876, wearing handspun khadi cloth.
8.Servants of India Society: Formed by Gopal Krishna Gokhale in 1915.It did notable work in providing famine relief and in improving the condition of the tribal.
9.Radhaswami Movement:Founded in 1861 by a banker of Agra, Tulsi Ram, popularly known as Shiv Dayal Saheb or Swami Maharaj.The sect preached belief in one supreme being, the Guru's supreme position and a simple social life for the believers (the Satsangis).
10.Theosophical Society:Founded by Westerners who drew inspiration from Indian thought and culture.Madam H P Blavatsky laid the foundation of the movement in US in 1875. Later, Col.M.S. Olcott of the US Army joined her.In 1882, it was shifted to India at Adyar (Tamil Nadu).Annie Besant was elected its president in 1907. She founded the Central Hindu College in 1898, which became Banaras Hindu University in 1916.
Jainism founded by Rishabha.
There were 24 Tirthankaras (Prophets or Gurus), all Kshatriyas. First was Rishabhnath (Emblem: Bull).
The 23rd Tirthankar Parshwanath (Emblem: Snake) was the son of King Ashvasena of Banaras.
The 24th and the last Tirthankar was Vardhman Mahavira (Emblem: Lion). He was born in kundagram (Distt Muzaffarpur, Bihar) in 599 BC.
His father Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrika clan.
His mother was Trishla, sister of Lichchavi Prince Chetak of Vaishali.
Mahavira was related to Bimbisara.
Married to Yashoda, had a daughter named Priyadarsena, whose husband Jamali became his first disciple.
At 30, after the death of his parents, he became an ascetic.
In the 13th year of his asceticism (on the 10th of Vaishakha), outside the town of Jrimbhikgrama, he attained supreme knowledge (kaivalya).
From now on he was called Jaina or Jitendriya and Mahavira, and his followers were named Jains. He also got the title of Arihant, i.e., worthy.
At the age of 72, he attained death at Pava, near Patna, in 527 BC.
Mahavira preached almost the same message as Parshvanath and added one more, Brahmcharya (celibacy) to it.
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